Health & Social Care Essay

Physical abuse – is classed as the hitting, shaking, choking, biting or other physical attack on an individual. It can lead to bruising, cuts, scratches burns, fractures and internal injuries. As well as these more immediate injuries, there can also be longer term ones. Someone who is being physically abused may show signs of it, but they may not be noticed by others if the victim is hiding the abuse. Signs and symptoms of physical abuse are cuts, brusies, burns grip marks, unusual pattern or location of injury, depression, fearfulness, withdrawn and anxiety. Sexual abuse – Sexual abuse involves any sexual behaviour directed toward an adult without that adult’s knowledge and consent. Sexual abuse can happen to people of all ages, including the elderly. Sexual abuse is a way that a person tries to have control over someone and has nothing to do with consenting sex between adults. Sexual abuse is another form of physical and emotional control of one person over another person, and it has nothing to do with consensual sex between adults. Read more: Explain the roles of different agencies in safeguarding and protecting individuals from abuse  essay Signs and symptoms of sexual abuse are pain, itching or bruises around breasts or genital area, torn stained or bloody underclothing, sexually transmitted diseases, vaginal/anal bleeding, depression, withdrawal from regular activities, fear and anxiety. Emotional/psychological abuse – Emotional abuse can be as painful and damaging as physical abuse because it diminishes an adult’s sense of identity, dignity and self-worth. Emotional abuse is when a person is verbally assaulted, insulted, yelled at, threatened or humiliated by someone close to them or by a caregiver. The abuser often confines a person or isolates them by preventing them from having visits from family and friends or by denying them the chance to attend doctor or other personal care appointments. Signs and symptoms of emotional/psychological abuse are depression, fear, anxiety and behaviour changes when a carer enters or leaves a room. Financial abuse – financial abuse involves the improper, illegal or unauthorized use of an adult’s resources for the benefit of another. Signs and symptoms of financial abuse are unpaid bills, no money for food, clothing, or medication, unexplained withdrawal of money from someone’s bank account, family member or representative refuses to spend money on the adult’s behalf, possessions disappear, family member or another person forces an adult to sign over Power of Attorney against their own will. Institutional abuse – Institutional abuse refers to mistreatment of someone living in a facility for older persons. This includes nursing homes, foster homes, group homes, or board and care facilities. For example the abuse refers to the ‘home’ and staff having set meal times, set places a resident can eat their meals, a certain time everyone must get up Rigid, routines, Inadequate staffing, Insufficient knowledge base within service etc. Signs and symptoms of institutional abuse could be Inability to make choices or decisions, agitation if routine broken, disorientation, patterns of challenging behaviour. Self neglect – Adults are neglected when a caregiver does not provide the essential daily living needs of an adult dependent upon them, for things such as food, clothing, shelter, bathing, medication, health care, and doctor visits. Self-neglect happens when an adult can no longer take care of their own basic daily living needs. Signs and symptoms of neglect and self-neglect are malnourishment, dehydration, confusion, inappropriate clothing, under or over medication, skin sores, poor hygiene, absence of required aids, canes and walkers. Aiii / Aiv) If someone makes an allegation of abuse to you, the first and most important response is that you must believe what you are told. You must reassure the person that you believe what you have been told also reassure them that it is not their fault and that they are in no way to blame. Once youve reassured the person that you believe them, you should report the allegation immediately to a senior member of staff. Make sure you then make an accurate record of as much detailed information. Av) If the abuse is physical, no attempt should be made to clean anything such as clothes or residence. The client should be dissuaded to wash. Other people should be kept out of the way. With financial abuse, evidence could be paperwork such as bank statements so these should not be thrown away. You should only remove anything that could be evidence if you suspect the abuser might dispose of it before the authorities can see it. Avi) The national polices that relate to safeguarding and protection from abuse are the safeguarding board, the social services. The child protection agencies like the NSPCC Childline. The H.uman rights act 1998 and the Equalityact of 2000. Avii / Aviii) Different agencies and professionals play critical roles when involved in safe guarding individuals for example, Medical professionals such as GP, A&E staff, nurses, doctors – they can examine, diagnose & treat, they can record. The local authority Social Services would carry out an assessment of needs. Safeguarding Team, within Social Services dept – investigates and ensures safety, work with other agencies such as police. A Safeguarding & Protection Officer would lead the Adult Protection Alert. Police to investigate/prosecute, to work with other agencies, to provide support to victims, to raise awareness of crimes, crime prevention. Care Quality Commission to regulate & inspect care providers. Independent Safeguarding Authority. Aix) When seeking advice, support and information to help care workers understand their role in safeguarding good sources would be social workers, advocaces, further training, management, relevant laws and policies, CQC guidelines, care plans including risk assessments.

Ethics in Pharma Marketing Essay

The pharmaceutical market in India today is worth Rs.57206 crores up from Rs. 5000 crores in 1995*. It is one of the fastest growing markets with a growth rate of around 15%. India has a large number of Pharmaceutical companies which operate in an environment of high competition. The competition is even higher in a high generic market like in India where drugs are in fierce price competition. It is estimated that there are around 20,000 pharmaceutical companies* in India, competing for a share of the market, in a poorly regulated environment. To be ahead in the race, pharmaceutical companies are investing highly in marketing and promotion of their drugs. The Consumer International Report 2010, on an average, the Indian Pharmaceutical companies spend almost 30% of their revenue in drug promotion which is one of the highest percentage in the world. Drug promotional strategies are communication strategies through which Pharmaceutical companies convey the benefits of their products and services to their target customers. The World Organization defines promotion of drugs as all information providing and persuasive activities by drug manufacturers and distributors, which influences the prescription, supply, purchase and/or use of medical drugs. In India, the promotion of drugs is fairly pervasive and has become a part of the everyday life of most doctors. Virtually all medical journals contain advertisements of different drugs, doctors are provided unsolicited information on new drugs by the pharmaceutical companies and branded drugs are directly marketed to the consumers. However, many marketing strategies are far more personal; involving provision of gifts to the doctors, sponsoring certain educational or social activities for the physicians and cultivating a close relationship between the company’s Medical Representatives (MRs) and the physicians. This interaction and relations between the Pharmaceutical companies and the doctors has attracted a lot of attention in recent times, mainly because the primary ethical duty of the doctor is to provide patients with the most effective treatment and the pharmaceutical companies with their primary motive of extracting maximum profits through their drug sales influence the prescriber’s decisions by unethical drug promotion. While the Pharmaceutical companies have always been blamed for bribing doctors, the doctor’s perspective of not considering acceptance of gifts as unethical shouldn’t be ignored. However, among the various forms of drug promotion acceptance of gifts by the doctors from the company’s representatives has been a matter of concern as it leads to conflict of interest between the doctors and the patients. Four fundamental principles of medical ethics are as follows, 1) Autonomy To provide informed choice and to respect the patient’s decision. 2) Beneficence To always act in the best interest of the patient 3) Nonmaleficence To always protect the patient from any harm 4) Justice To follow equity in providing healthcare When physicians accept gifts or get influenced by the unethical promotion of drugs, there may be a conflict of interest between their responsibility to provide the most effective and most affordable treatment to their patient and any obligation which they may be facing to prescribe a particular company’s drug. Other activities which are unethical and still followed by the Pharmaceutical companies are- giving selective or inaccurate information to the prescribers and the patients, giving poorer quality of drug information than it is given to their western counterparts, etc. in India, currently there is no legal requirement in periodic recertification or continuing medical education. So for the prescribers there is no other way but the company’s medical representatives in obtaining information about the latest developments in the field of therapeutics. Recently in India, due to public concern about these practices, there has been development of various guidelines in the area of unethical drug promotion. However, these guidelines did not impose any restrictions on prescribers. In 2009, the Medical Council of India (MCI) passed amendments on the Code of ethics which now contains strict measures against any medical practitioner who benefits from any pharmaceutical company. Thus elaborated guidelines on the appropriate relationship between the prescribers and the pharmaceutical companies are in place. Inspite of this, medical professionals continue accepting gifts and getting influenced by the unethical drug promotion. So this raises several questions on the doctor’s perspectives on what he considers to be ethical in the current drug promotion practices. Do the prescribers consider the personalized marketing tactics to be ethically acceptable despite the critical concerns regarding it? This paper will aim to understand the prescriber’s perspective of ethics in drug promotion. The aim of this paper is to study the ethics in the drug promotion activities undertaken by the pharmaceutical companies in India and to understand the doctor’s attitudes and perceptions of ethics in these activities. Till date no study has been undertaken on the ethics in drug promotion in the Indian concept. The present study attempts to address this problem. Also the study is important for two reasons. 1) Data from India on attitudes and practices of doctors regarding ethical drug promotion are virtually non-existent. 2) In view of the recent guidelines by the Medical Council of India (MCI), it is important to know the magnitude and nature of the problem amongst the doctors.

Usefulness of Accounting Theory to Practicing Accountants Today Research Proposal

Usefulness of Accounting Theory to Practicing Accountants Today - Research Proposal Example Throughout history, the need for a single and unified conceptual framework which will embody the needs of the business organization for financial reporting has been a pressing concern. The lack of established accounting theory to support the reporting of financial transactions and the production of financial reports called for the foundation of financial reporting. Without accounting theory, accountants grapple with the difficulty of producing reports which will clearly represent the company’s performance. Comparison and benchmarking cannot be accomplished since reporting is not supported by the same foundation. The need for a conceptual framework is even highlighted by the era of globalization which aims the creation of a single global village. However, it should also be noted that the usefulness of accounting theory is limited by the adherence of accountants which utilizes it. The financial fiascos that shook the global community highlight the need for a more stringent contr ol and adherence to the reporting process in order to produce financial reports which fully embodies the financial position of a business organization. In the early 1800s, accounting theories were random and ill-defined. Development was unstructured and the formalization of existing practices was still in the very preliminary stages. Scientific development was also quite ad hoc and inconsistent, yet 42 bulletins were already developed before 1970. These facts help magnify the importance of having a united adaptable system for the accounting profession to work consistently. The normative period began to emerge in 1956 and developed until 1970. This stage allowed the development of a set of norms for accounting practices and the commencement of the conceptual framework for accounting. It was divided into two dominant groups—the conceptual framework and the critics of historical cost. As the normative era was not being successfully accepted by the community the period ended as financial theories, and computer databases led to empirical research.

Cotton-topped tamarin Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Cotton-topped tamarin - Research Paper Example Its face is black and nearly devoid of hair except for brief white brows and short hair on its cheeks. It has the characteristic brown eyes that are found in all tamarins. Its body is a mixture of colors, with the back and shoulders being grayish brown, the rump being rusty brown, the torso being white and the long tail being rusty brown at the base before proceeding to become dark brown or blackish further down. Measuring from nose to rump, the usual length of a cotton-top tamarin is 9 inches [23 cm]. The average length of its tail is 14.5 inches [37 cm]. The weight of an adult differs between males and females with the former being 14.5 ounces [410 gm] and the latter being 15.2 ounces [430 gm] (Durrel.org). Cotton-top tamarins are mainly found in the forests of northwest Colombia in an area between the Magdalena River and the Cauca River. Others are found in several reserves and parks in Colombia, especially the sprawling Paramillo National Park which covers an area of 540 square km (Lang). The average longevity period of a cotton-top tamarin is 13.5 years (Lang). The female [who can be impregnated at the age of 10 months] gives birth to twins after 6 months’ gestation (Peaceriverrefuge.org). The male helps the female at birth by washing the babies. He also carries the babies, only handing them over to the female at feeding time (Zooschool.escd.net). The young ones are fed until they are 8 to 10 weeks old. The female young ones grow up to mature faster than the males [18 months as compared to 24 months] (Peaceriverrefuge.org). Cotton-top tamarins have a typical movement style involving quadrepedal clinging/walking/running along small or medium branches, or bounding up to distances of 3 meters to branches of nearby trees (Zooschool.escd.net). Their modes of movement are aided by their unique claw-like nails [known as tegulae] that resemble those of squirrels (Lang). The diet of cotton-top tamarins

Worlds Leaders Press the United States on Fiscal Crisis Article

Worlds Leaders Press the United States on Fiscal Crisis - Article Example The paper "World’s Leaders Press the United States on Fiscal Crisis" investigates World’s Leaders Press the United States on Fiscal Crisis. The country’s key economic partners, for example, China, are worried about the economic situation in the United States. If the United States would not revise its debt ceiling, the global economy would slow down in terms of growth. This is because the United States is a key consumer of goods produced across the world. It is as well a key supplier of goods. Failure by U.S to review its national debt ceiling would mean that the level of consumption within the economy would go down. In turn, this would adversely affect the economy in terms of the economic growth. Failing to raise the national debt ceiling would lead to the country defaulting on its financial responsibilities i.e. financing the recurrent expenditure. Defaulting would adversely affect the country’s credit rating. This is because of the fact that the risk ass ociated with the government bonds would go up. Therefore, it would be costly for the economy to borrow in the future. There is a direct relationship between risk and the rate of interest. In other words, when the level of risk goes up, so does the rate of interest. This means that it would be costly for the U.S government to borrow in the future, if it will not review the debt ceiling. The country’s is one of the leading across the world in terms of the credit rating. This means that other countries are always willing to lend to U.S.... By raising the debt ceiling the country would be able to meet its short-terms financial obligations i.e. payment of wages to its employees. The country may get back to another financial crisis, if it would not review its current debt ceiling. Critique/ analysis It is important for the United States government to review its national debt ceiling. This is not only important in terms of meeting its financial obligations, but also because of the fact that the level of consumption and government expenditure would go up. According to the Keynesian economists, there is a positive relationship between consumption within an economy and economic growth. Therefore, increasing the limit relating to the level of the national debt would substantially contribute towards the growth of the economy. Both consumption and the government expenditure would go up. Through the multiplying effect an increase in government expenditure or consumption, would result in more than proportionate growth in the level of the gross domestic product. On the other hand, if the government would not review its debt ceiling, consumption and government expenditure would go down, and through a multiplying effect, the GDP would go down by more than proportionate. The article focuses on the short-term solution of the national debt crisis. However, it does not focus on the long-term solutions to the crisis. Although it is important for the government to revise the ceiling, this would only be in the short-run. A long-term solution to the U.S. problem would be important to the country because it would prevent the problem from recurring. One of the long-term solutions would be cutting the budget deficit gradually. In other

Network Management and Protocols Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Network Management and Protocols - Essay Example In its simplest form, SNMP is a client/server protocol. It has two entities: the manager and the managed. Most network equipment has the option of supporting the SNMP agent and responding to SNMP requests. If the server, hub, router, and, eventually, workstations have the SNMP service implemented, then the manager is able to collect data in a remote mode. The information that is available in this scenario includes inventory, configuration, network hardware and software, and operational status. Using SNMP does not cause undue stress and overload on the network. It will not affect users' response time to monitor the network on a regular basis, so long as you are not trying to replicate events too often and unnecessarily. Even though it started as a temporary solution for network management until something better was built, SNMP has become a standard. Most smart network equipment has SNMP availability. There is a limited set of SNMP commands and actions. For most of us who are not netwo rk engineers, it is enough to know that SNMP is installed so that the third-party software we will use will be able to access the protocol. For instance, when installing Windows NT, it is important to activate SNMP service. While there are great resources for learning the commands at a very detailed level, most of us will not have the time. The other component in the SNMP world of which we must at least have a superficial understanding is the MIB or management information base. Simply speaking, this is the information that is managed by SNMP.  

Gideon's Trumpet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Gideon's Trumpet - Essay Example It includes an evaluation of the appeal of the work to me, whether that appeal was on a logical or an emotional level. The paper weighs in on whether this work to me is worth recommending to others or not, what I would tell them prior to and after reading the work (Lewis; Sessions). II. Summary In ‘Gideon’s Trumpet’ we have the story of Clarence Earl Gideon, who in the account of Lewis launched a campaign through the letters to the Supreme Court for the right to have counsel for his case. On the one hand this is the key thread of the book, although a parallel thread looks at the general process for appeals in the Supreme Court. At the heart of the story, meanwhile is Gideon’s letter to the Supreme Court asking the court to essentially have his larceny conviction overturned on the basis of his not having been assigned a lawyer during his trial. Gideon was then in his fifties at that time. Prior to his larceny conviction, for which he wrote the Supreme Court asking for justice, Gideon had been sent to prison four other times, for various felonies. As a man Gideon’s problem was related to his being unable to hold down work for any given time, so that he drifted, and supported himself by occasionally engaging in petty thievery, as well as gambling. The impression that people who got to know him personally though, including the authorities, was that he was a harmless man, who had been marginalized by society (Lewis; Sessions). At the heart of the argument of Gideon, it is said, is the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution, and whether or not the amendment clause relating to due process translated to a right to counsel for those accused of felony crimes. This has been deemed a federal concern and thus a candidate for hearing by the Supreme Court, Gideon having complied with the filing requirements for very poor petitioners such as himself. With the Supreme Court having determined that it is in their jurisdiction to hear Gideonâ₠¬â„¢s case, they then proceed to assign a lawyer to act as counsel to Gideon before the Supreme Court, in the person of a top lawyer named Abe Fortas. Betts v Brady was deemed as an important precedent case to be considered in deciding on Gideon’s petition and the right to counsel doctrine under the Fourteenth Amendment. There is a chapter that further explores the Supreme Court judges’ individual stands on following precedent or interpreting the literal meaning of the Constitution and striking down laws and precedents that contradicted the letter of the Constitutional law. This is a prelude to Fortas crafting a strategy for Gideon’s defense, and looks at the nuances of judges arriving at their decisions at the level of the Supreme Court. On the other hand, looking at Gideon’s case in greater detail, the reader is introduced to certain facts, including that he had been charged with breaking and entering as well as larceny in connection with the Poolroom a t Bay Harbor facility in June 1961, in the community where he lived at the time, the Bay Harbor Community. Gideon’s own assessment of his fate with the justice system in Florida is that of a system that essentially was prejudicial in its application of the process against those who are marginalized. This assessment is given by Lewis together with the narration that Gideon had been exemplary in his behavior in prison, often being of aid to those who had problems with dealing with the legal aspects of their crimes (Lewis; Sessions).

Intermediate sport management (sport events) Essay

Intermediate sport management (sport events) - Essay Example Such dilemma has appeared in the case of Beijing Olympic Games of 2008. The findings of studies developed on this event seem to be controversial. The effectiveness of the above event is evaluated in this paper by referring to the literature and the empirical studies that have published in this field. The key finding of the study is that the specific event can be characterized as successful even if the problems appeared during the development of the event’s Strategic Plan have been many, as analyzed below. 2.0 Introduction The effectiveness of 2008 Beijing Olympic Games is reviewed in this paper. A qualitative research approach has been used for reviewing the various aspects of the specific event. A series of studies published in the academic literature has been reviewed in order to check whether the above sport event has been successful or not. Specific aspects of the particular event are set as priorities in this study: Marketing, Operations Quality and Performance, Legal and Ethical issues, Finance, Human Resources and Media. Certain articles published in the local and international press have been also employed, for providing additional information, where necessary, on the issue under examination. The main body of this study has been divided into two parts: Discussion and Findings. In the first of these parts, the Discussion part, the findings of the literature related to this study’s subject are presented, being categorized in order for the coherency of the study to be secured. These findings are then evaluated in the second part of the main body, the Findings section, in order to decide whether the management techniques used for managing the above sport event have been successful or not. The findings of the literature review are supported by graphs included in this study’s Appendix. Conclusions in regard to the issues discussed through the paper are provided in the Findings section; in this way, all conclusions are appropriately suppor ted while any gaps, as revealed through the literature, are highlighted. 3.0 Discussion 3.1 Marketing Marketing, as part of the 2008 Beijing Olympic games, can be evaluated by referring to two, different, facts: the popularity of the specific event as it was in progress and the popularity of the city after the end of the particular event. The Beijing Olympic Games of 2008 can be considered as a major event for China’s public image. In fact, since the end of the Olympics the number of tourists that have visited the region has reached impressive levels; in 2011 about 4.61 million people visited the city, a number that it is quite high (Blanchard and Fan 2012). Gibson, Qi and Zhang (2008) tried to identify the level at which a major sport event can be used as a tool for improving the image of the hosting country. The case of Beijing Olympics is used as an example. A survey was developed in Athens among college students during the Athens Olympic Games of 2004. The objective of th e survey was to show whether the intention to travel to China could be influenced by the Olympics in Beijing. It was proved that, indeed, a relationship could exist between the hosting of a major sport event and the intention to travel to the hosting country. The above relationship is presented in the graph included in Figure 1,

Expression of a persons mental state Essay Example for Free

Expression of a persons mental state Essay Emotions, feelings and intuition is the expression of a persons mental state, normally based on the persons internal (physical) and external (social), sensory feeling.[8]  We use emotions to determine our personal state of mind, we can be angry, sad and confused; and through emotion we can arrive at the truth that we are depressed. Regardless this truth only remains legitimate if the causes of the emotions remain constant. Likewise in the case we change the context of the situation, such as instead of it raining it were sunny, that person wouldnt feel as depressed and a new truth would emerge. Ethics is the study of morality; analysing if behaviour, thoughts and actions are good or right as opposed to bad and wrong.[9] Ethics plays a major role in the modern world as every public and social source, especially the media, are advertising what is nice and evil, good and bad, right and wrong. It is like the legal system, but it is more vague and theoretical also the consequences tend to be social as opposed to being sent to jail. Ethics are open to interpretation by each individual each society or even a culture as a whole. Where in the majority of Western countries it is seen as morally wrong to have more than two wives as well as illegal, in some Arab countries such as Kuwait and Saudi Arabia it is acceptable to have more than one wife if you can support them. Sometimes the more wives you marry, the more money you must have, therefore the wealthier you are.[10] It is interesting to see how a large amount of people can interpret the same truth, such as in this case, which was brought to my attention by a guide during my stay in China. The use of footbinding on 6 year old girls in China during 1,000 years to impress the Emperor[11], was at the same time interpreted completely differently by an entire society. Westernized countries have never deformed their bodies, for status, erotic or social reasons as it is seen as morally wrong. It all depends on the context, and in this case it is the different backgrounds, cultures and beliefs of the two societies. History is the objective study and interpretation of information about the past.[12] To any historian a vital area of focus is the validity of sources to arrive at a truth. For example an unedited video would be considered reliable as it shows what happened without any tampering of the source as opposed to a journal, which could be biased.  However if the source is biased does it mean the truth is no longer valid ? For example when I was a little kid my parents (the source) used to tell me the Three Kings would come every January bearing presents and so they did. To me at the time it seemed as a truth and it was still valid, because I got my presents. Its not until we change the context, e.g.: present day, that the truth loses all its validity. This shows that the truth we derive from the validity of the sources is completely relative depending in the context which it is presented in, which means that the truths we know now may not be considered truths in the future.  Mathematics is a science dealing with logic and aim to derive theorems from axioms.[13] Whether it was discovered or invented we will never know, however one thing is certain; maths is highly influential in our day to day life; for example, technology, finance and architecture. We assume that mathematics provides us with an absolute truth; 1 + 1 = 2  However during my IGCSE course I experienced the ambiguity of maths (in the following example), which since then has left me thinking, if we could continue using maths as a source for truth.  The fraction 1/3 when written as a decimal number is .333 where the dots indicate that the sequence of 3s is infinite.  Thus we might write the equation:  1/3 = .3333  Multiplying both sides by 3 we get:  1 = .999  Therefore:  1 + 1 = 2 We know the first equation is a truth as we have been taught this in school and the world of mathematics revolves around that equation being valid. However using mathematical induction and rationalisation we have induced that the last equation is also valid. Nonetheless we arrive to the conclusion that they both can not be equal in a same frame of reference.  Once again Margaret Atwood, shows that the truth as we know it, cant be absolute as it varies depending on the context in which it is proposed. Answering the question Does this mean that there is no such thing as truth ? I believe there is always a truth as depending on the context, any situation can be manipulated to arrive at a truth. However I dont think Universality[14]; an idea which is universal, and exists everywhere, throughout the Universe nor an Absolute Truth exists, as the value of every thought changes depending on the context. As the Relativists would say; its all Relative.  I think a more appropriate title would have been: Does this mean there is no such thing as an absolute truth ? as the use of Context is all allows for there always to be a truth but not one that is absolute. Bibliography: Atwood, M. (1996), The Handmaids Tale. Vintage (pg. 202) http://dictionary.reference.com

Enhancing Democracy in the United States of America Essay Example for Free

Enhancing Democracy in the United States of America Essay Democracy: â€Å"1 a: government by the people ; especially : rule of the majority b: a government in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised by them directly or indirectly through a system of representation usually involving periodically held free elections 2: a political unit that has a democratic government† (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary) With the 2008 elections fast approaching, and a highly fueled and hotly contested primary and general election campaign waning, the public is forced to consider the problems and opportunities in the American democratic system. Is there something wrong with the democratic system in the United States of America? If so, what? If there is a problem with democracy in America, what is it and how can it be fixed? The United States of America was born of an act of legislation designed to promote democracy. The United States has developed into a world superpower by enacting and enforcing legislation designed to enhance democracy. Today, legislation is passed by elected officials who then vote in national, state, and local legislative assemblies. In other words, voting and the electoral system, is the catalyst for maintaining democracy. The United States can improve democracy by improving the voting system that facilitates the democratic process. Federally mandated voter registration Today, many men are the beneficiaries of laws enacted giving their mothers the right to vote. All ethnic minorities are the beneficiaries of laws enacted giving African-Americans the right to vote. Voter registration is still optional, and considered a privilege. But now is the time to make voter registration a responsibility of all American citizens. Voter registration should be treated like Selective Service registration, a must for those who wish to receive any other benefits of citizenship including financial aid and government employment. It is not difficult to keep track of eligible voters, especially in this information age where all children are issued a social security number at birth. This process can be as simple as using the existing social security system to send registrations to those who have reached their 18th birthday and maintaining a national database similar to the social security and selective service rolls. Enforcement can be as simple as cross referencing social security numbers for registration upon application for jobs, financial aid, and public assistance. Compliance can be mandated by withholding benefits pending registration. This is a minimal effort and may not increase voter participation. But this registration plan could eliminate most existing barriers to voter registration. Federal authority over state and local elections This idea expands on the idea of the federal registration system. The Federal Elections Commission already exists. With electronic voting and reporting, federal authorities should require that all state and local elections comply with the same guidelines as national elections. This would work by applying residency requirements to both congressional elections and local elections. In other words, a person registered, residing, receiving benefits in Idaho cannot register to vote in local elections in Columbus, Georgia. This simply uses the wealth of electronic information captured on citizens to manage voting. This system would have to also account for citizens with multiple residences by requiring that everyone declare a primary residence which would be the location for their voting. If they know that they will be in a secondary residence at election time, the registration system should allow them to easily request absentee balloting which could be completed by mail or turned in at a local agency of the federal board of election. Citizen assemblies control re-districting activities Legislative assemblies and committees currently control political re-disctricting plans. In other words, elected officials decide when and how (and if) voters want, need, and get additional elected officials. Rapid economic development causes some districts to grow and change materially and demographically such that a single elected official cannot effectively serve the interests of the entire district. In that case citizens should have the right to send a message, at the voting booth, that they need additional representation. A citizen assembly should bring together elected and public officials, urban and economic planners, and affected citizens together to draw districting plans that represent the interests of all parties without compromising a sitting official’s position or ignoring a constituent’s special needs. A series of re-districting alternatives can be placed on the ballot for voters to decide. Voter responsibility education Schools should be required to include a course that teaches voting rights and responsibility as part of a social studies, American government, and civics curriculum. This course should be repeated at the university level to account for foreign students that will eventually become United States citizens. For older Americans who are beyond the educational system and for older immigrants, community based programs should be implemented that instill that voter registration is a responsibility of citzenship, not just an optional right or privilege. Tax deductible campaign donations Public financing for campaigns is generally not a tangible benefit for lower income voters. Many may see public financing as a way for candidates who do not have their interests in mind to advance their campaigns. Allowing federal and local tax deductions for small campaign donations can help to decrease feelings of disenfranchisement of lower income voters. They have the opportunity to directly support the candidate or issue of choice, and receive a ture public benefit (both the donation and the deduction). This could replace the current system and be managed at the federal level as well. Conclusion The United States can enhance democracy by modifying its election system. By placing activities such as deciding on political districts and adding value to campaign donations, voters are enfranchised in a greater way. Education makes citizens understand the benefits of voting. Consolidating the registration and polling makes the system as fair and not subject to less error. References democracy. (2008). In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved October 13, 2008, from http://www. merriam-webster. com/dictionary/democracy Gerkin, H. , et al. (2006). Six Ways to Reform Democracy. Boston Review, September/October 2006. Retrieved October 13, 2008, from http://bostonreview. net/BR31. 5/gerken. php

Literature Review on Pakistans Food Security

Literature Review on Pakistans Food Security ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK Food security is elucidated by the IFAD/FAO as the year-round access to the amount and variety of safe foods required by all household members in order to lead active and healthy lives, without undue risk of losing such access. No country anywhere in the world is food secure on this definition. It represents therefore an ideal. To make the definition operational, four dimensions are considered namely Food Availability, Food Access, Food Utilisation and Stability of Access. These are briefly explained as follows: 1. Food Availability: The availability of sufficient quantities of food of appropriate qualities, supplied through domestic production or imports (including food aid). This is often confused with food security but should properly be seen as only a part, albeit an important part of food security. The question is not only whether food is available in a country but whether it is available in the right place at the right time and there must be a mechanism for ensuring that food of the right quality is made available. 2. Food Access: Access by individuals to adequate resources (entitlements) to acquire appropriate foods for a nutritious diet. These resources need not be exclusively monetary but may also include traditional rights e.g. to a share of common resources. Entitlements are defined as the set of all those commodity bundles over which a person can establish command given the legal, political, economic and social arrangements of the community in which he or she lives. 3. Food Utilization: Utilization of food through adequate diet, clean water, sanitation, and health care. This brings out the importance of non-food inputs in food security. It is not enough that someone is getting what appears to be an adequate quantity of food if that person is unable to make use of the food because he or she is always falling sick. 4. Stability of Access: Are individuals at high risk of losing their access to food? An example of this situation would be a landless agricultural laborer who was almost wholly dependent on agricultural wages in a region of erratic rainfall. Such a person is at high risk of not being able to find work in a situation of general crop failure and thus going hungry, i.e. is vulnerable. The objective of the thesis would be to analyze the institutional, production, market and policy aspects of the aforementioned four specific factors underlying food insecurity in Pakistan. This shall be gauged by analyzing secure access, production and utilization of three key staples; wheat, rice and sugar. There is considerable evidence that indicates the need to route policy focus to take the shape of revisionary responses to institutional framework, production, market dynamics and existing policy framework; all geared towards actualizing yield potentials and enhancing food security in the context of factors outlined above. What makes it even more pertinent is the impending food crisis keeping in view the increasing population and various institutional constraints underlying the retarded growth in production e.g water shortages, soil degradation, absence of proper agriculture research, improper agricultural practices etc. The four key aspects defined above i.e. Food availability, Food Access, Food Utilisation and Stability of Access shall be analyzed in terms of their current standing as well as the potential areas of improvement to realize the stipulated objectives. The stated framework is illustrated in the table as under: FOOD AVAILABILITY Review of Land holdings Cropping Patterns and relative prices for each crop. Profits and Losses per acre for each crop for each size class of farm Total area of cultivable land including land currently being utilized and cultivable waste. Water Utilisation Seeds, Fertilisers and GM food technology as a yield enhancement technique Productivity Enhancement of major crops Availability of credit for farmers for investments geared towards productivity enhancement FOOD ACCESS Identification and Targeting of the Food Insecure People Enhancing Productivity of small farmers for poverty alleviation and foster agricultural growth Diversification of On-farm and Off-farm income generation activities Stabilization of input and output process Encouragement of small scale enterprises STABILITY Inter-regional Inequality Urban Rural Disparity Distribution of land and Access to inputs and resources Skill Development for broad based development UTILISATION Improving nutritional aspects of food Balanced dietary consumption Promotion of household food production e.g. vegetables and pulses production, poultry and rearing of small ruminants POLICIES AND INSTITUTIONAL IMPERATIVES Removing Policy Distortions Provision and enhancement of rural infrastructure Institutional Structure for accelerated agricultural growth with equity. Credit and Rural Finance Human Resource Development Research and Extension Support Services In addition, the modus operandi for addressing the questions specified above would be through: †¢ A review and research the production, availability and consumption of essential food commodities †¢ A review of existing food procurement and storage facilities and identify areas of potential improvement †¢ Identification of the constraints in production, yield as well as the prices of essential food commodities e.g. wheat, sugar and rice. †¢ Identifying areas and scope of improved physical inputs geared towards improving the state of agriculture. †¢ Appraising the effectiveness of the Social Safety nets like BISP, Punjab Food Support Scheme in improving food security and how modifications in these programs towards targeting can be brought about to reduce fiscal and economic costs and losses for non target beneficiaries. †¢ Institutional and policy imperatives for enhanced and sustainable agricultural growth through a normative analysis of the following: o Agriculture and Crop Research Facilities o Social Mobilization o Vertical Integrations and Marketing systems o Enforcement Mechanisms in place to keep track of the regulatory endeavors. LITERATURE REVIEW Agriculture is considered the mainstay of Pakistans economy. According to the Economic Survey of Pakistan 2008-09, there are major hindrances in the GDP growth rate in case of Pakistan, which the report asserts could not hold at 2007-2008 level. Agriculture, the major source of employment and income in the rural areas is expected to grow at 4.7 percent as against Services sector growing at the rate of 3.6 percent during 2008-2009. About 70% per cent of the countrys rural population is directly or indirectly linked with agriculture for their livelihood. Whatever happens to agriculture is bound to affect the livelihood and consequently food security of the poor rural people. Decline of agriculture and shrinking livelihood opportunities have resulted in rising poverty in rural areas while also compounding the food insecurity in both rural and urban areas. Agriculture, thus assumes a critical role in the national economy, providing food to the fast growing population of the country. Pakistan is a country where food security situation in recent years has not been very encouraging. The demand for food in recent years, especially key staples like wheat and sugar have started to exceed the supply. This gap can be attributed to many possible causes. According to Ahmed and Siddiqui (1994), even when the supply situation is better, there are problems with the distribution amongst different segments of the society thus adversely affecting the nutrition. On the demand side, the food security problem has been complicated by an unprecedented increase in population. Since the existing rate of population growth of over 3 percent per annum is expected to continue for a reasonable period of time, the total fertility rate also remaining well above the so-called â€Å"replacement level†, improvement in health-care facilities, which have already resulted in a remarkable decline in infant and child mortality rates has also contributed towards the high population rate in Pak istan. Transitory and chronic food insecurity is caused mainly by poverty. (Tweeten, 1999) People with adequate buying power overcome the frictions of time (e.g., unpredictable, unstable harvests from year to year) and space (e.g., local food short- ages) to be food-secure. The conclusions of the aforementioned study further suggested a food security policy synthesis for poor, developing countries like Pakistan which are outlined as follows; Poverty is best alleviated through broad-based, sustainable economic development. The most effective and efficient means to economic development is to follow the standard model, illustrated by the figure as under, which assures an economic pie to divide among people and among functions, such as human resource development, infrastructure, family planning, a food safety net, and environmental protection. The standard model is not merely an ideal; it is applicable to any culture and provides a workable prescription for economic progress, ensuring buying power for self-reliance and food security. Eventually, in conjunction with family planning, it brings decreased population growth. Although no country has adopted every component, many countries have adopted enough components of the standard model to demonstrate its capacity for economic success. The central puzzle of why food-insecure countries like Pakistan, eschew the standard model when it can bring food security is explained by political failure. Terminating even the worst policies creates losers. If the losers are in positions of power and authority, they resist reform. Economic distortions provide economic rents for those in authority who bestow licenses and enforce regulations. Parastatals provide employment for friends and relatives of power brokers; hence, unfortunate public policy carries powerful momentum. Political failur e is inseparable from broader institutional failure. Food insecurity and economic stagnation are not the result of limited natural resources, environmental degradation, or ignorant people. Rather, they are the result of misguided public policies, which in turn are the product of weak institutions and corrupt governments serving special interests. Institutional change is required to adopt the standard model. Poorly structured, inadequate institutions often trace to cultural factors such as tolerance of the public for unrepresentative, corrupt, incompetent government. Government leaders often view their position as an opportunity for personal aggrandizement rather than to be a servant of the public interest. Socio-institutional changes, and hence standard model adoption, are blocked by cultural characteristics such as caste and ethnic animosities, which provide a fertile climate for governments not representing the public interest to play one group against another. Thus, the challenge of food security for our time, as argued by Tweeten (1999), is socio-institutional change. A study was conducted by the IFPRI in 1977 that emphasized on the intensity of the problem facing the Developing Market Economies (DMEs) in countering food deficits in the wake of increasing populations. The options to grapple this challenge were outlined as increasing domestic production, commercial imports, reducing the food consumption levels through pricing adjustments or rationing, and food aid. For a country like Pakistan, easily branded as a low income country, policy choices are limited. Much of the population is already below the minimum dietary and nutritional requirements. Commercial imports to cover up the food deficit may not be a plausible option because it deems imperative a huge foreign exchange outlay coupled with various alternative development expenditures seeking priority. The study concluded that in order to narrow the food gap, development efforts in such low income countries must emphasize on policies to increase and enhance production performance. Large increa ses in agricultural investments coupled with appropriate policies and effective programs will be central. The third critical dimension of food security, utilization, refers to actual metabolization of food by the body. Food that is available and accessible does not alleviate food insecurity if people do not utilize food properly because of inadequate nutrition education and food preparation, bad habits, eating disorders, or poor health, such as intestinal parasites from unsanitary water. Thus, food security is appropriately defined not just as access but as utilization by all people at all times of sufficient nutrients for a productive and healthy life. It follows that sanitation, education, and health care are important instruments for food security. Despite per capita world food supplies being more than adequate to provide food security to all, food or income transfers among nations cannot be the principal instrument to end food insecurity. One reason is because altruism is too limited and fickle to provide sufficient, reliable transfers. Heavy dependence on transfers could discourage local production and create an unhealthy dependency of poor nations and individuals on rich nations, agencies, and individuals. Massive food transfers would destroy incentives for local food producers. A nation must have a pie of purchasing power to divide and share among its food-insecure people. Because it is the poor who lack access to food, alleviating food insecurity means alleviating poverty. Most of the worlds poor, the 1.3 billion people with incomes of less than $1 per day (updated from World Bank 1990, p. 29), will have to escape poverty and food insecurity through economic growth. Economic growth largely was responsible for the 158 million reduction in numbers of undernourished people in East, South, and Southeast Asia from 1979-1981 to 1990-1992. In the mixed and underdeveloped economies of the Third World, the maintenance of minimum consumption levels for large segments of the population is a critical problem. Even in developing countries with a reasonably well-developed industrial base, such as India, glaring nutrition gaps exist (Knudsen and Scandizzo 1979) and critical shortages can and do arise in basic consumption areas such as food, fuel, and clothing (Sharma and Roy 1979). Such shortfalls have serious economic, social, and political consequences (Burki and Haq 1981). Therefore, governments in developing countries usually attempt a macro management of selected consumption items. A fairly complex set of direct and indirect policies are used to influence the production, distribution, and prices of such items (Ahmed 1979, Dholakia and Khorana 1979, Kaynak 1980, Sorensen 1978). The formulation and implementation of such policies can be viewed as a macro-marketing management process [Zif 1980]. For essential consumption ite ms, this process entails: i. Identification of key consumption items (products) and target groups (markets), ii. Development and evaluation of intervention methods (macro marketing strategies), iii. Creation of delivery or communication systems (channels) to reach the target groups or other intervention points, and iv. Monitoring and control of the consumption- oriented programs (macromarketing control system). In discussing the rationale for Macromanagement System for Essential Consumption Items (referred herein as MSECI), two interrelated questions arise i.e. why do these systems come into existence and what are the goals of these systems. In analyzing why the government intervenes in the distributive trade for essential consumption items, Sorenson (1978) cites four reasons, which are presented below in an elaborated version: i. Under conditions of scarcity (a typical feature in underdeveloped countries), the unfettered operation of the market mechanism is politically unacceptable. Price increases and shortages resulting from unfettered private trade would be politically too risky for the government in power. ii. Distributive trade typically has a poor reach in the rural areas. In periods of shortages, rural distribution deteriorates even further, making government intervention a necessity. iii. The market mechanism is imperfect in terms of prices, information, and market clearing. During periods of shortages, these imperfections become magnified, inviting government regulation. iv. Profits and surpluses from private trade in developing countries usually do not flow into productive investments. Instead, they flow into private consumption and investment such as clothing, jewelry, gold, houses, dowries, and so on. Hence, profits from shortages do not help alleviate the major cause of shortages, i.e. low le vels of production. In fact, some of the surpluses may even accentuate shortages by becoming working capital for increased hoarding of goods. Government often intervenes to reduce the profits going into such unproductive uses. The experience of India as put forth by Dholakia and Khurana (1979) and other Third World countries points out a few other reasons for the emergence and growth of macro management systems in the distributive trade sector. Some of these are: i. Distributive trades absorb a lot of people and provide a low-cost employment outlet in developing countries. Governments often intervene to further some employment goals in addition to the distributional goals. In India, for example, the government often preferentially awards licenses to operate Fair Price Shops to those groups considered to be politically important unemployed college graduates, retired army personnel, widows of servicemen, etc. ii. Government intervention in distributive trades is often a consequence of agricultural price support programs. Once the government becomes a procurer and storer of large quantities of farm products, it needs a distribution method for these products. An MSECI is created as a result. Once an MSECI is created, the reverse logic often takes over. For example, to support an extensive public distribution system in a southern state of India, the state government resorts to mandatory procurement of some percentage of farms output [George 1979]. iii. In a manner similar to agricultural policy, the industrial policy of developing countries also leads to governmental intervention in distributive trade. To support small-scale, infant, or weak industries, the government sometimes assists in the marketing of the products of such industries by procuring their products and distributing them through state-controlled or subsidized channels [Bhandari 1979]. In Morocco, for example, the government subsidized the introductory advertising efforts of a baby food considered to be important in meeting that countrys nutritional goals [Vitale and Cavusgil 1981]. These last three points illustrate how consumption- and distribution- oriented policies get intertwined with policies related to employment, agriculture, industry, and other sectors. The rationale and rationality of MSECIs must therefore be studied in the context of other related sectoral policies [Gustafsson and Richardson 1979]. While the above discussion throws some light on why MSECIs come into existence, it does not fully illustrate the range of goals that MSECIs may serve. According to Gustafsson and Richardson (1979), where there is a complex polity, not only are there multiple actors in the policymaking process but each actor sometimes has multiple goals. Politicians, for example, are interested in: a) Solving problems, where it is feasible to do so and ideologically acceptable to the politician b) Agenda management, that is, getting problematic and intractable items off the political agenda, often by formulating do-nothing placebo policies, and c) Creating consensus, especially when the issue is frankly fractious. In the context of an MSECI, purely placebo or consensus-making policies are unlikely to exist. This is because breadbasket issues are involved and simply managing the agenda or creating a consensus (without solving the problem) is politically too risky. As a part of the problem-solving strategy, however, policymakers may make some efforts to manage agendas or create consensus. Policies geared towards essential consumption items are therefore likely to have some symbolic, rhetorical, or bargaining content (Lapps, Collins, and Kinley 1980). With reference to the rationale and goals of MSECIs, the following conclusions can be made: a) MSECIs usually emerge in developing countries to serve short-term, volatile political problems caused by scarcity. Later, these systems may be further developed to embrace other economic goals. In fact, appropriately used, MSECIs could play an important role in balanced development (United Nations 1977). b) As the complexity of an MSECI increases, consumption and distribution-related policies become entwined with several other sectoral policies in developing countries. c) Analysis of MSECIs should be conducted with sensitivity to the goals stated and implicit of the different actors in the consumptive and distributive policy process. According to Hussain et al, the production instability and food insecurity in are interrelated. Most of the rain-fed agriculture of the country is experiencing erratic production. The production instability index (coefficient of variation) is 29% in the Pakistan (Anonymous). Most variation is attributed to crop yields. The productivity per unit of resource especially water, is low. The declining resource productivity is due to increased water logging and salinity, nutrient depletion, deforestation and devegetation and increased pest complex. Looming water scarcity and competition for the same water from non agricultural sectors necessitates improving crop productivity to ensure adequate food for the nation with the equivalent or less water than is presently available for agriculture. This can be obtained because available information shows that there is a wide gap between actual and attainable crop water productivity, especially in the arid and semi-arid environments. Quantifying cro p water output reveals gaps in information regarding pre-eminent ways to increase crop water productivity. Cropping systems need to be inherently flexible to take advantage of economic opportunities and/or adapt to environmental realities. A dynamic cropping systems concept characterized by a management approach whereby crop sequencing decisions are made on an annual basis has been proposed to improve the adaptability of cropping practices to externalities. STATE OF AGRICULTURE IN PAKISTAN Despite a structural shift towards industrialization, agriculture continues to be the biggest sector of the economy. It contributes 21.8% of the GDP, employs 44.7 % of the workforce and is a major source of foreign exchange earnings . About 68% of the population lives in rural Pakistan and depends upon agriculture for their sustenance. Given its wide-spanning forward and backward linkages, in particular with the Industrial sector, agriculture has assumed an added significance especially in the context of the prevalent global food crunch and food security. According to the Economic Survey of Pakistan 2008-09, no economic reforms will be successful in the absence of a sustained and broad based agricultural development which is critical for raising living standards, alleviating poverty assuring food security, generating a buoyant market for industrial expansion an making a substantial contribution to the national economic growth. The utilization of agricultural land in Pakistan is illustrated by the table as under. The total area reported in the table includes the total physical area of the villages. Forest area refers to the area of any land administered as forest under any legal enactment dealing with forests. Any cultivated area which may exist within such a forest is shown under the heading of cultivated area. Culturable waste is that uncultivated farm area which, although fit for cultivation, has been left uncropped during the year under consideration as well as the one preceding. Cultivated area is the area which was sown at least during the year under reference or during the preceding year. This includes the net sown area as well as the current fallow. The current fallow is the area that is ploughed but not cropped. With these definitions in context, a review of the agricultural land holdings of Pakistan is presented as under: (Million hectares) Table: (Source: MINFAL) An analysis of the land utilization statistics indicate that the total area under cultivation has registered a gradual increase during the period specified i.e. 1990-2008. The uncultivable land is being brought under cultivation and the total cropped area has also been increasing, though not very significantly. Given the importance of agriculture in the national economy, the policy focus has essentially been on agriculture even though the need for a structural shift towards industries and manufacturing gained importance post 1990s. If we look at the historical statistics of the Pakistan economy, we can see how the performance of agriculture coincided with the GDP growth. Table below illustrates the performance and average annual growth rates of the Agriculture and the GDP for the period 1960-2009. AVERAGE ANNUAL GROWTH RATES 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000-2009 GDP 6.8 4.8 6.5 4.6 5 Agriculture 5.1 2.4 5.4 4.4 3.0 Table Broadly speaking the growth rate of agriculture across the periods specified in Table 1 was fairly good but the yearly growth rates during the same periods were erratic. The growth of agriculture was particularly low in the periods of 1998-99 at 1.9%, 2000-01 at -2.2%, 2001-02 at 0.1% and 2007-08 at 1.1%. Considering the current decade, agriculture has grown at an average rate of 3.32% per annum. Of this, the growth performance over the last seven years has been of a volatile nature ranging from 1.1% to 6.5% at the highest. See table below, AGRICULTURE GROWTH (%) Year Agriculture Major Crops Minor Crops 2002-3 4.1 6.8 1.9 2003-4 2.4 1.7 3.9 2004-5 6.5 17.7 1.5 2005-6 6.3 -3.9 0.4 2006-7 4.1 7.7 -1.3 2007-8 1.1 -6.4 10.9 2008-9 4.7 7.7 3.6 Table 2 Federal Board of Statistics, Government of Pakistan(2009) This volatility can be primarily attributed to the crop sector which has been a subject of various pest attacks, irregular raining patterns, adulterated pesticides etc. There are two principal crop seasons in Pakistan, Kharif and Rabi. The sowing season of the former begins in April-June and the harvesting occurs in October/ December while the latters begins in October/December and ends in April/ May. Major crops of the Kharif season include Sugarcane, rice, cotton and maize and those of the Rabi season include wheat, gram and lentils. As per the statistics of the MINFAL , the major crops such as wheat, rice, cotton and sugarcane amount to about 89.1% of the value added in the major crops, and this amounts to about 33.4% of value added in the overall agriculture. The production statistics of the major crops of both the seasons are given in the table as under: PRODUCTION OF MAJOR CROPS (000 TONS) YEAR COTTON (000 BALES) SUGARCANE RICE MAIZE WHEAT 2003-4 10048 53419 4848 1897 19500 2004-5 14265 47244 5025 2797 21612 2005-6 13019 44666 5547 3110 21277 2006-7 12856 54742 5438 3088 23295 2007-8 11655 63920 5563 3605 20959 2008-9 11819 50045 6852 4036 23421 MINFAL Pakistans agricultural production is closely linked with the supply of irrigation water. The supply of irrigation water has been strained as indicated by Table 3 as under: Actual Surface Water Availability (Million Acre Feet) Period Kharif Rabi Total % Change over Average Average System Usage 67.1 36.4 103.5 2002-3 62.8 25 87.8 -15.2 2003-4 65.9 31.5 97.4 -5.9 2004-5 59.1 23.1 82.2 -20.6 2005-6 70.8 30.1 100.9 -2.5 2006-7 63.1 31.2 94.3 -8.9 2007-8 70.8 27.9 98.7 -46 2008-9 66.9 24.9 91.8 -11.3 Table 3: (IRSA) As shown in the table, against the normal surface water availability at canal heads of 103.5 MAF, the overall water availability for both the crop seasons has been less in the range of -2.5% to 20.6%. If the water availability for the respective seasons is analyzed one can conclude that the Rabi season faced a greater dearth of the water supply as compared to the Kharif season.

Diabetes Explained Essay example -- Medical Conditions

Special cells in the pancreas produce a hormone called insulin to regulate metabolism. When this hormone is not present glucose cannot enter body cells and blood glucose levels rise. Hyperglycemia may result from this situation. This process is the development of diabetes mellitus. Type 1 diabetes, formerly called juvenile diabetes or insulin dependent diabetes mellitus, has two forms; immune-mediated and idiopathic. Type 1 diabetes accounts for 5-10% of cases in the United States. Research has shown that there is an inherited tendency for developing the disease; it may be triggered by environmental factors (Rosdahl & Kowalski, 2008). It also has an autoimmune component since antibodies to insulin and islet cells are present at the time of diagnosis (p. 1187). Because type 1 diabetes needs to be managed very carefully, are [Delete] carbohydrate counting and a low fat diet [â€Å"are†] the best way [Plural] to make sure that glucose and insulin are available in the right propor tions. When diagnosed the goal is to achieve metabolic stabilization, restore body weight, and relieve symptoms of hyperglycemia. Type 1 diabetics rely heavily on their diet to control their condition. It is just as important as accurately checking their glucose on a regular basis. A person with type 1 diabetes needs to find the right balance of foods [Should not be plural] choices to regulate their diet and control their glucose levels. If this is not achieved [Insert comma] long term complications for diabetes can arise which include; damage to the heart, blood vessels, kidneys, eyes, and nerves. Carbohydrate intake must be carefully coordinated with an exercise program and medication, this is imperative so that glucose and insulin are available in the right a... ...i, G. (2011). Short Report: Treatment effects of meals with different glycaemic index on postprandial blood glucose response in patients with type 1 diabetes treated with continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion. Diabetic Medicine, 227-229. doi:10.1111/.1464-5491.2010.03176.x Rosdahl, C.B., & Kowalski, M.T., (2008). Textbook of Basic Nursing (9th Ed.) Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins Scavone, G., Manto, A., Gagliardi, L., Caputo, S., Mancini, L., Zaccardi, F., & Ghirlanda, G. (2010). Effect of carbohydrate counting and medical nutritional therapy on glycaemic control Type 1 diabetic subjects: a pilot study. Diabetic Medicine, Vol. 27, (477-479). doi:10.1111/.1464-5491.2010.02963.x Thornton, H. (2009, June). Type 1 diabetes, part 1: An Introduction. British Journal of School Nursing, Vol. 4, (No 5), 223-227. Retrieved from EBSCOhost database.

Assia Djebars Fantasia :: Essays Papers

Assia Djebars Fantasia Assia Djebar’s Fantasia, is an autobiographical novel of an Algerian woman’s struggle to find her voice in a society that rewards the voiceless. In an area heavily laden with cultural traditions, she confounded these traditions by embracing the French language. Her struggles and development through the French language were very important themes within the novel. But what was Djebar’s link to the French language? Why did she pursue it in the manner that she did? Djebar’s Algerian world was filled with traditions that kept women silent. From the veils over their heads to the lack of encouragement to read or write, women were kept down. Djebar longed for freedom and found it in the French language. Flocking to the language of her enemies, Djebar found expression in its words. â€Å"I cohabit with the French language:† writes Djebar, â€Å"I may quarrel with it, I may have bursts of affection, I may subside into sudden or angry silences – theses are the normal occurrences in the life of any couple.† (213) If we examine this passage we will find what the French language truly meant to Djebar. There had been a relationship kin to marriage between French and her. This relationship starts early in her life with an introduction to French from her father. When Djebar first started to write love letters in French, she began to find the freedom she never knew existed. The language attracted her with its â€Å"endless jewel s.† This attraction was further spurred by the newfound freedoms she found in French schools. Djebar enjoyed the traditions and Quranic teachings imparted to her at the time however, she felt more fulfilled doing taboo things such as wearing shorts or playing sports. Djebar talks about her love affair with a student. In this affair it was not the love of the man that drove her but more importantly and ironically the budding love of the language. I believe it was the language that intrigued her the most not the actual person. In the passage, Djebar made a point to mention the language used to write the letter, but not the name of the person. To me this signifies the language as being the focal point of the event and not the actual person. If we look in the book, Djebar concentrates more deeply on her relationship with the French language over any other relationship that she had.

Media †‘When the Levees Broke’ Essay

A Spike Lee documentary looking into the tragic event of hurricane Katrina in New Orleans. It shows camera footage and interviews from various people such as: residents , politicians and police men who were all caught up in the disaster. Divided into four parts, the film goes on for four hours. During this, numerous people with different roles are interviewed regarding their experiences. Spike Lee has introduced the film but using archive footage and photos of New Orleans. It shows the damage, debris and severe flood scenes that were left behind after the breech of the levees. Also, Spike Lee has used music effectively to show and add emotion to the narration and commentary. He has varied the kind of music that is being played throughout the film. He would use a slow, calm piano piece for a distressing scene. Whereas for a scene where help and aid is being sent, there would be a more up beat and military piece of music. There were a lot of sounds. Sounds varying from helicopters and cars to narration and commentary. Usually when a witness was being interviewed, background sounds were muffled out. This allowed what the witness was saying to have more meaning and get the message across more effectively. The interviewees all discussed their emotional state during the though times. Some cried and other spoke in an angry tone. Politics played a large role in terms of the slow, emergency response to the tragedy. Many politicians were interviewed and mostly claimed they were unaware of what had happened in New Orleans. What was even more shocking, was how long it took president Bush to become conscious of the issue. This happened on the fifth day after the hurricane. People were starving, searching for shelter and trying to find missing relatives. Some tried to leave the city, but were met by military men with guns, who had just instructed them to go back. These politicians were abusing their power and forgetting about what really had to be done.

Imagery In Caged Bird Essay

Maya Angelou uses caged and free birds to symbolize the dream of attaining freedom. The poem illustrates the contrast between imprisonment and freedom through symbolism of a caged bird and a free bird and then between their dreams and desires. Although the poem paints a picture of a carefree bird in a beautiful landscape the caged suffering bird reaching out for freedom seems to dominate the poem giving it a serious and solemn tone. The beautifully written poem opens our mind to sad truths about segregation and oppression through a wonderful blend of similes, metaphors, rhyme, repetition, assonance and other figures of speech. The poem uses powerful imagery to convey the opinion and message of the poet. Metaphor â€Å"Bars of rage† symbolizes the anger and frustration of the enslaved not having the freedom to express the feelings. The â€Å"Narrow Cage† is used to describe the claustrophobic society in which the suffocated captives are subjugated to humiliation and denied equality in life or society. â€Å"Graves of Dreams the caged bird stands on† is another illustration sketching the disillusionment of the black oppressed people. They fear that freedom for them is merely a mirage -something so evasive something they can never achieve. White people represent the free bird able to â€Å"leap on the back of wind† and do as she or he chooses. The free bird thinking of â€Å"free worms† and â€Å"naming the sky his own† demonstrates that these free white men care merely about their own wealth and disregard the needs and cries of the oppressed black community. ‘The caged bird replicate the black citizens of the US. The wings are clipped and his feet tied tell us that these people are devoid of the simple joys of freedom, which is their birthright, and have unfortunately and unfairly become victims of discrimination and racism. The phrase â€Å"tune is heard on a distant hill† is a message that the white people have knowingly moved far too away to hear the cries of â€Å"the black caged birds† and choose to be indifferent and lack any compassion. Another phrase, â€Å"dips his wings in orange sun rays,† reveals a contrast between the delicacy and gentleness of the language and the blunt harshness of the theme of the poem. The poet has simultaneously used powerful verbs like â€Å"Leaps, flows, dips and dares to describe the actions of the free and oppressed.† The bird â€Å"stalks†¦Ã¢â‚¬  opens his throat to sing conveys that singing is the only expression of freedom and the only way of leaping and floating ahead towards freedom. This highly romantic poem concludes on a optimistic note by saying through the words â€Å"for the caged bird sings of freedom† showing that slowly the captives will succeed in making everyone aware of the social injustice and obtain the much deserved freedom and opportunity to be happy.

Unman Wittering and Zigo by Giles Cooper Analysis

We have been studying the play Unman Wittering and Zigo, which was written by Giles Cooper in the 1960's. Giles Cooper was born in Dublin in 1918 into a privileged home. His father was a naval officer, who later became a judge. Giles Cooper's father wanted him to become a diplomat or a lawyer but Giles chose to go to drama school rather than university. He was educated in a public school, subsequently the story is based on his own experiences of authoritarian teaching while he was a student. Giles Cooper was concerned about the effects of authoritarian teaching and as a result wrote this play. The play is about a teacher, John Ebony, in his first job who wants to make a good impression. He finds that the boys he is teaching are fractious and have a nasty habit of gambling. His life as a teacher rapidly descends in to a nightmare, and as the story goes on he begins to uncover the mystery surrounding the death of the previous school master. It goes on to reveal something dark and unpleasant about the nature of the boys who killed their form teacher. The play was written for radio so there aren't any visuals. The audience therefore had to imagine what the characters and scenarios were like. As it is a radio play the tone and pitch of the voice are very important because this is the medium through which effective understanding is conveyed. The scenes in the play are very short because audiences cannot listen for a long time without visuals. Therefore the director must entertain the audience by providing a gripping thriller. John is used in the story to expose the hidden secrets of Chantery and the corruption of the boys. Giles Cooper does this through a vulnerable and in experienced teacher. John is trying to be more like Mr Winstanly but this does not work for John because he is far too inexperienced. In the first scene John is appointed as a temporary teacher at Chantery. When the Head is talking to him he makes sure John knows about the reputation of the school, as if the headmaster is showing off. Surprisingly the headmaster ignores John's questions and instead of answering he interrupts or changes the subject. ‘Was he my predecessor? Er, Yes. That brick building†¦.' This makes the reader wonder why? He does it because he is hiding something about Mr Pelham The headmaster tells John that Lower 5 B are a little mischievous but he does not reveal the full truth about the class but holds it back. The Head then leaves him with Cary, by doing this the headmaster comes across as an irresponsible character. He also undermines John's confidence because he feels he is not important enough to be shown around the classroom. This is not the case. The headmaster is scared that John will find out about the corruption of the school if he is shown too much. This shows the Headmaster is hiding the inner secrets of the school and is only showing the ‘sugar coated topping' of an apparently successful public school. In scene 3 the boys take control very quickly. From the beginning the boys start mocking John and giving random and futile comments, as though they are mocking the way teachers teach. ‘Jamaica's in the Caribbean, sir' They use a derisive tone by giving useless information as though they are teasing John. John loses his temper and responds to this in an authoritarian way. As a diversion they then poke Wittering, who cries out loud. This delays the lesson again. When his attempt to quiet them down fails he resorts to using his authority. â€Å"Now I don't wish to crack the whip on our first morning but I will if you make me† The pupils respond to this by giving a fake confession to him of Mr Pelham's murder but they use this confession as an attempt to intimidate John throughout scene 3, John raises his voice constantly i.e. using authoritarian teaching to gain control of the class but this does not work and he fails to regain control of the class. The students take advantage of John's inexperience and in doing so gain an advantage over John When the Head walks in, the boys carry on with the lesson and by doing this makes us think that they have done this before. This is the chance John has to tell the Headmaster about what they had said, but foolishly he doesn't. This shows that John's confidence has diminished. Furthermore John presumably does not want to tell the Head because it could create the impression that he cannot handle the class. In scene 8, convinced that the boys have committed some sort of crime, John takes Mr Pelham's wallet to the headmaster and suggests that it should be given to the police. However, (contrary to John expectations) the headmaster tells him off for leaving the class and ignores his concerns. â€Å"‘It was in his pocket when he was killed' ‘It is a practice which is always discouraged here. Every period should be worked through whatever happens'† The headmaster then changes the subject, suggesting he doesn't want to discuss John's concerns, by saying he wanted to invite him for dinner. This shows that the headmaster does not give John any support but more importantly does not want the secrets of what happens in the school to be exposed. He is extremely sensitive about the reputation of the school. The Headmaster then seems to order him to return to Lower 5 B, â€Å"‘ Lower 5 B have been left to their own devices for long enough, Miss Gammel' ‘But sir' ‘Discourage any discussion of the matter'† By doing this the headmaster is discarding any of his suggestions and is not helping out John when he is inexperienced and unsure of what to do. The situation would affect John greatly because he knows he doesn't have any one to turn to and cannot do anything even if the boys intimidate and taunt him. When John returns the pupils seem to know what the Headmaster has said. ‘On the whole Ebony. The less said the better. Perhaps you better return to Lower 5 B. They have been left to their own devices for too long.' This suggests it has been said before. Teachers have gone to the headmaster but he has been very dismissive. The pupils seeing John's lack of confidence take advantage of the invitation and make a proposal. â€Å"‘You don't want to be sacked from your first job do you sir†¦.' ‘No he wants us to be a credit to him.'† The tone of the pupils her would be very calm, slightly intimidating as though they know they are in control but also very persuasive but this time they spoke in more of a friendly manner. On the other hand John would be speaking in an uncertain tone and seems to agree to the modus vivendi although he doesn't actually say anything which emphasises his powerlessness. The modus vivendi creates a vague sense of stability in the classroom as it brings about a situation in which the constant battle for power is ended for the time being. This is because it seems John has finally been defeated and the students have gained control. John admits defeat at this point and it is now that he is finally sees the truth in their confessions and begins to develop an idea of how cunning and clever the students are and how much the system has corrupted them. As a result of this he sees no point of arguing with them as they obviously don't lack determination. The situation changes once again when the Headmaster more or less sacks John. ‘†¦.that's the last thing I'd want you to think, but we always like to have Old Chantovians on the staff and as Grimwits available for the Easter term we really think we ought to take this opportunity to secure his services†¦.' The headmaster not only puts John out of a job, but crushes his high hopes of raising his teaching status by starting in a well known and supposedly successful public school. One characteristic that John does not lack is ambition. It is this that causes him to be irresolute at a time when discipline is needed as he doesn't want to spoil his chances of a permanent job. Getting sacked in turn brings about a new feeling of anger. In this new frame of mind it now seems to John that he has nothing to lose and this creates new possibilities for John. In scene 24 the tables turn, as John gains power and the students lose it. The students begin to realise that they can't hold anything against John and moreover the fact that he doesn't seem to care anymore. Now it is the students that begin to panic. When John refuses to teach the lesson, the students retaliate by trying to show that they don't need him and haven't lost anything. They try to prove how little his withdrawal affects them so attempt to continue with the lesson themselves. â€Å"‘And he's taking it out on us' ‘It's not fair' ‘Are we going to let him?' ‘No. We'll go on ahead without him. Cuthbun, you're the best at history you take us'† This attempt fails as their independent learning skills have not been developed, and soon there is chaos when they begin to bully Wittering, taking all their frustration out on him. This is where the writer shows that, although too much authority has disturbing consequences, totally removing it would be just as harmful because anarchy would be the result. The confession and revelation of Mr. Pelham's death plays an essential role throughout the play. Not only does it disclose what characters authoritarian teaching can create. It also shows the extent of Cooper's passionate views regarding authoritarian teaching. The play is about violence and authority, the questions posed by the play are- Does authority prevent violence, or does authority cause violence?

Eyewitness testimony

The Expert Witness â€Å"How reliable Is eyewitness testimony On the 28th of September 1 999, a building society in West Bromidic was robbed by a man brandishing a gun. He had approached the cashier desk and pushed aside a customer and then produced a gun. He ordered the three customers in the bank to lie on the floor. He then pointed the gun in the face of the cashier and told her to fill the bag with money. In doing so, she managed to raise the silent alarm alerting the police. After her compliance, the robber instructed her to also lie on the floor behind the desk.He warned the customers not to move before shooting his gun at the ceiling and running out. The four witnesses were then Interviewed as a group by police at the scene of the crime. The first Interview revealed many Inconsistencies In the descriptions of the perpetrator and also the chain of events. All witnesses had described a white male In his ass with a local accent. The group was split 2:2 on the robbers hair color, two thought blond and the others thought it was brown. The witnesses were then taken to the police station and interviewed separately.All four had now given statements eying the robber had blond hair. A lot less inconsistencies were found when the witnesses were interviewed for the second time. A third interview was conducted a few weeks later to see if any more details had been remembered of the crime. A photo was also shown to the witnesses to see if they could confirm that he was the man they remembered from the robbery. Again the group were split, two thought It could be him and the other two were unsure. All four witnesses a few months after, had taken part In a line up In which they all picked out the same man as the robber In the bank.The man they Identified turned out to by the same man from the photo they were shown previously prior to the line-up. The man they identified was James Taylor. James Taylor is a 33 year old with one previous conviction for robbing a sweet shop when he was 18. He spent 18 months in prison for this crime and hasn't been in any trouble since. He became a suspect when an anonymous tip came in from a man with a local accent giving them Sesame's name. Taylor had said he had been in Yellowhammers at the time but could not supply any witnesses to confirm his alibi.The case went to trial before a Jury which was drawn from the local area. There was no forensic evidence lining Taylor to the crime scene but the prosecution argued he was a local man with previous convictions, that couldn't produce an alibi for his confirmed the man they picked out in the line-up, with one saying she was ‘absolutely certain' that Taylor was the man who held up the building society at gun point. After a 45 minute deliberation, the Jury returned a guilty verdict and sentenced Taylor to five years in prison.To start identifying the problems with this case and detect why the conviction was unsafe one must start with the first officers attending(FAA). The Job of a FAA is to immediately attend to injured persons at the crime scene. They then should separate eyewitnesses from one another to avoid conversations between them that might distort their memories and to avoid the transfer of trace evidence, Jackson. Jackson(2008). However, the 4 witnesses were first interviewed as a group. During this interview ,there were inconsistency with the decision of the robbers hair color.After the witnesses has listened to each other's stories, two had decided to change their minds and agree his hair color was after all blond. This is a clear robber with the testimony used in the trial, as all the witnesses were interviewed as a group. Due to social desirability and conformity they changed their remembrance of characteristics. An example of social conformity can be explained by Solomon Sash's visual Judgment experiment. Cash got 7 people to take part in each experiment but every time 6 of the participants were confederates.The confederates were instructed to all follow a strict set of instructions. In the experiment two cards were shown to the group of seven. One card had a vertical line and the other card had 3 lines of varying lengths. The experimenter then asked all seven to choose which line of the three matched the length of the line on the other card. The confederates were sometimes asked to all agree on certain cards that would appear to be blatantly obviously wrong. The experimenter was testing to see if the participant would change their mind in order to conform with the majority. 4% of the innocent participants went along with the group and conformed giving the incorrect answer, School(2013). In the third interview police took a photo of a suspect, James Taylor, to the witnesses and asked them if they could confirm that he was the man they remembered from he robbery. After this the witnesses attended a line up in which Taylor was present, from this they were able to confirm that Taylor was the robber. The questio ning from the police asking to confirm that Taylor was the robber, could be considered as a leading question.Meaning that due to their choice of wording, they were able to lead the witnesses to a desired answer. They were made to think that Taylor had committed the crime, even though they may not of originally thought it was him. Loft's and Palmer in 1974, conducted an experiment to prove that leading questions n an interview can have a clear effect on witnesses answers. They asked forty five participants to watch a clip of two cars in an accident. They were spilt into 5 groups and then they were asked the question â€Å"How fast were the cars going when they (hit/ smashed/collided/bumped/contacted) each other? A week after the participants had seen the clips, they were also asked if they saw any broken glass, even though there was no broken glass. Loft's and Palmer had found that the verb used, changed the the ‘smashed' conditions reported the highest speeds, followed by â⠂¬Ëœbumped', ‘hit' and collided' in descending order. A week after when the participants were asked if there was any broken glass at the scene, people in the smashed group predominantly said yes. This proved that a leading question encouraged the participants to remember the cars traveling at a faster speed.The question has also appeared to modify their memory as they also remember seeing non-existent glass, McLeod(2010). The leading question asked by the police could be an explanation for the sudden conformation of James Taylor being the robber, even though straight after the event, two thought he ad brown hair and two thought he had blond, now they are able to recognizes some facial characteristics one even saying she was â€Å"absolutely certain† it was James Research by Loft's and Burns in 1982 also suggests that weapon focus can have a detrimental effect on memory of certain characteristics.They believe that a witness will focus more closely on the weapon used duri ng a crime and not the person holding it. They believe this is because a person will always focus on the thing that poses a threat or injury when it's not in its usual context. For example, you wouldn't be afraid of someone brandishing a gun at a shooting range. They conducted an experiment by allocating participants to one of two conditions. One watched a violent short film of a boy being shot in the head and the other watched a non-violent short film of a crime.The results were dramatic, only 4. 3% of the subjects who watched the violent crime correctly recalled a number on a boys Jersey, this compared to 27. 9% of participants who answered correctly that had watched the non-violent version, This could be another contributing factor as to why the eyewitnesses testimony's may be unreliable and as to why they might not be able to reduce an accurate description of the robber, as he did brandish a gun, put it in the face of one of the witnesses and also fired it before he left.The wit nesses were also part of the crime not watching it on a video clip like the participants in Loft's and Burns experiment. Witnessing a real life crime is more stressful than taking part in an experiment. To hypothesis that the description the witnesses gave to the Jury, might not be as accurate as they recall, might bare some weight, due to weapon focus and other contributing variables present at the time of the incident. Another factor which could disprove the testimony given by the witnesses is one called the schema and stereotype theory.This theory suggests that we are only able to take in a certain amount of information at the scene of a crime or incident. Ata later date when we are asked to provide greater detail, we rely on past experience (schemas) and prejudices (stereotypes) to fill in the gaps. We use expectations to reconstruct our memory. One experiment conducted by Bartlett in 1932 called War of the ghosts' portrayed a great example of the way people use stereotypes and schemas. Bartlett got participants to read a native North American folk tale, then repeat the story to another person in turn who repeated it and so on.By the time the last person had repeated the story back they had shortened it by three quarters and westernizes the details for example, seal clubbing was changed to fishing. One as a stored set of knowledge about a concept which guides our behavior. These are used to prompt our memory, and sometimes to fill in gaps if we are unsure, Bartlett(1932). Bartlett suggested that we make the following adjustments in certain cough situations: He believed people tend to rationalist situations and add material to Justify parts of their story.He believes that parts of a story, particularly those difficult to understand were often left out or manipulated. When people can't make sense of a situation, they tend to rearrange the order to one which fits the stereotype of their expectations in certain events. He also believes that people add their ow n emotion to a story, making the chain of events differ from someone else due to their personal emotional response. The research conducted by Bartlett is another factor hat could be problematic in the conviction of Taylor.The four witnesses could of used their schemas and stereotypes along with leading questioning from the police to come to the assumption that James Taylor was the robber. The above explanations are reasons why the conviction for James Taylor may not of been safe and also why the eye witness testimony may have been distorted. To show the weight an eyewitness testimony bares on a case, can be demonstrated by Elizabeth Loft's in 1974. Loft's gave participants three versions of a robbery and murder case, she then asked them to decide whether the defendant was guilty.Circumstantial evidence which was presented to the mock Jurors included the fact that the robber ran into the defendant's apartment block, money was found in the defendant's room and tests revealed there was a slight chance the defendant had fired a gun on the day of the robbery/murder. Results revealed that with Just this information provided, only 18% of participants thought that the defendant was guilty. When also presented with an eyewitness testimony, the guilty verdict dramatically changed to 72%. This demonstrates the powerful effect of an eyewitness testimony.More strikingly, when the participants were informed that the eyewitness was short- sighted, he was not wearing his glasses at the time of the offence, and he could not have seen the robber's face from where he was standing, 68% still gave a guilty verdict, Stewart(2013). This demonstrates the shocking strengths that an eyewitness testimony bares on each case. Upon evaluation of this case, it would seem that the conviction to ‘send a message to other potential criminals', may have been in haste. The problem with this case not only lies with unreliable eyewitness testimony's but the conduct shown by the police wrought .From group interviews, leading questions and photographs to prompting from the prosecution lawyers prior to the trial. The conviction of James Taylor in this case, seems to be more about making an example of someone in order to set a precedent for others thinking of committing a similar crime, rather than on a case which is based purely on facts and forensic evidence, in which this case had none. Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press A,R. Jacksonville(2008)Forensic science. Second Edition. Pearson education emitted, Essex England. Eyewitness Testimony In the legal profession, eyewitness testimony (EWT) is generally defined as the account of an event provided by an individual or individuals who have witnessed it.Such an account could contain the identity or identities of the people who were involved in the event, a narration of how the incident, itself, occurred, and a detailed description of the scene before, during, and after the event took place. In criminal cases in the United States, the general tendency is for juries to grant EWT a rather high level of reliability, especially in the process of identifying the perpetrator/s of a criminal act (McLeod).Unfortunately for jurists, research has been consistent in showing that EWT is not as reliable as generally perceived. As a matter of fact, in Problems and Materials on Trial Advocacy written by A. Leo Levin and Harold Cramer, the authors stated thatEyewitness testimony is, at best, evidence of what the witness believes to have occurred. It may or may not tell what actually happen ed. The familiar problems of perception, of gauging time, speed, height, weight, of accurate identification of persons accused of crime all contribute to making honest testimony something less than completely credible (Cline).This view is shared by many legal practitioners. The prevailing view not only among defense lawyers but also among prosecutors is that in spite of the sincerity of eyewitnesses, EWT could not always be credible. They are convinced that when somebody professes to have witnessed an incident or a crime, for that matter, such a statement should not be taken by faith because it is very possible that what he or she remembers seeing may not have actually happened.This argument is generally based on the fact that not all eyewitnesses possess the same degree of competence. A competent eyewitness should have the following qualities: sufficient â€Å"powers of perception†; ability to remember and describe what he or she remembers seeing; and the willingness to tell only the truth (Cline).In theory, an eyewitness testimony could be discredited in a court of law if it could be established that an eyewitness is not competent by showing that his or her memory and perception are impaired, he or she has certain biases or prejudices against the accused, or that he or she is a reputed liar. Unfortunately, records show that even eyewitness accounts from highly competent witnesses have nonetheless caused the conviction of many innocent people. These are cases which involve competent eyewitnesses giving eyewitness accounts which are not credible but appear convincing to jurors (Cline).Since eyewitness account is highly dependent upon the memory of an individual, his or her recollection of events is greatly affected by â€Å"age, health, personal bias and expectations, viewing conditions, perception problems, later discussions with other witnesses, [and] stress† (Cline).In other words, EWT should be appraised on a case-to-case basis, taking into c onsideration the personal attributes of the eyewitness and the conditions prevailing at the time of the event such as weather condition, time of day, distance of the witness from the incident, and illumination. Stress is another factor which affects a person’s memory. For instance, an eyewitness who has been so horrified by a killing often fails to recall vital aspects of the incident. In such cases, it is said that the memory of the witness fails him or her, giving credence to the school of thought which maintains that man’s memory is actually imperfect (Cline).Elizabeth Loftus belongs to this school of thought. In fact, in her book Memory: Surprising New Insights into How We Remember and Why We Forget, she wrote that â€Å"we often do not see things accurately in the first place. But even if we take in a reasonably accurate picture of some experience, it does not necessarily stay perfectly intact in memory†¦With the passage of time, with proper motivation, with the introduction of special kinds of interfering facts, the memory traces seem sometimes to change or become transformed† (Cline). In other words, memory is not only imperfect but could also be manipulated or managed. This is only one of many observations raised by scholars and researchers about the reliability of eyewitness testimony.